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Evidence is weak for tropical rainforest 65 million years ago in Africa's low-latitudes

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The landscape of Central Africa 65 million years ago was a low-elevation tropical belt, but the jury is still out on whether the region's mammals browsed and hunted beneath the canopy of a lush rainforest. The scientific evidence for a tropical rainforest at that time is weak and far from convincing, says paleobotanist Bonnie F. Jacobs at Southern Methodist University in Dallas.

Fossil pollen from Central and West Africa provide no definitive evidence for communities of rainforest trees at the beginning of the Cenozoic, says Jacobs, an expert in the paleobotany of Africa soon after dinosaurs had gone extinct. It was the start of the age of mammals, and Africa was largely an island continent.

Many Cenozoic mysteries remain to be solved

The rainforest mystery is characteristic of the scientific uncertainty and unknowns surrounding Africa's ancient flora during the period called the Cenozoic. There are large gaps in the fossil record, says Jacobs, a co-author of "A Review of the Cenozoic Vegetation History of Africa." She is an associate professor in SMU's Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences.

The review, a chapter in "Cenozoic Mammals of Africa" (University of California Press, 2010), is the first of its kind since 1978 to review and interpret the Cenozoic paleobotanical record of Africa with paleogeographic maps showing paleobotanical site distributions through time. Jacobs co-authored the paper with Aaron D. Pan, a paleobotanist at the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, and Christopher R. Scotese, in the Earth Sciences Department at the University of Texas at Arlington.

The 1008-page "Cenozoic Mammals of Africa" is the first comprehensive scientific reference of its kind since 1978, comprising 48 chapters by 64 experts. The volume summarizes and interprets the published fossil research to date of Africa's mammals, tectonics, geography, climate and flora of the past 65 million years.

Details sparse, but big picture emerges for past 65 million years

Paleobotanical data for Africa are generally meager and uneven for the Cenozoic, according to Jacobs and her co-authors.

In an original series of maps, they chart each Cenozoic Africa paleobotanical locale described in the published research to date. There are a mere 82 sites in all. Most of the sites date to 50 million years ago. Fewer date to 20 million, 30 million, 10 million and — perhaps most important — 2 million years ago, when the human family was evolving.

"Africa is disappointingly undersampled," say Jacobs and her colleagues. "This vast continent, roughly three times the area of the United States, has so far been documented by only a handful of Paleogene plant and vertebrate localities, and it has a Neogene record heavily biased toward the depositional basins of the East African Rift."

Shift from descriptive to analytic approach driven by holistic view

For a continent so important for its role in the evolution of mammals, the scarcity of plant fossil data stands in sharp contrast.

"As impressive as is the contemporary mammalian diversity of Africa, it is dwarfed by that of the Cenozoic," write the volume's editors, paleozoologist Lars Werdelin, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, and paleontologist William Joseph Sanders, the University of Michigan. Africa today represents 20 percent of the world's land mass, is the only continent to occupy both the north and south temperate zones, and is home now to more than 1,100 mammalian species, they write in the introduction.

Africa's paleobotanical record is key to a holistic understanding of ancient mammals, says H.B.S. Cooke in the preface. A mammal expert, Cooke was editor of the earlier 1978 scientific reference, "Evolution of African Mammals" (Harvard University Press).

"Most striking over the past years has been a shift in studying fossils from a largely descriptive taxonomy to a more analytical approach, including consideration of faunal associations, their distribution in time and space, and the environmental and climatic factors that prevailed and changed through time," Cooke writes in the preface to the new book. " … African prehistory has become more a study of paleobiology than mere paleontology."

To view a map or images of Cenozoic leaf fossils from Jacobs' field work in Africa go to SMU Research on flickr.

More scientific exploration needed to fill gaps

Scientific exploration to learn more about Africa's ancient vegetation is on the increase, say Jacobs and her co-authors. That should start to fill gaps in understanding, including the mystery of Africa's palms.

While palm trees are common in wet tropical forests worldwide, that's not the case in Africa today. Palm trees have not been found in abundance in Africa for the past 24 million years, regardless of whether the regional vegetation was forest, say the authors. Oddly, though, abundant palm samples have been found in some African locations dating between 65 million and 25 million years ago, including at Chilga in Ethiopia by Jacobs and Pan.

The implications of that difference are significant for the various endemic mammals of that time, many of which were absent by 23 million years ago, say the authors.

"We are fortunate that the sampling scale of most fossil localities is at the plant community level, and larger-scale changes took place one community at a time," they write. "Thus, as Africa becomes better sampled, the uneven record will ultimately become a more complete narrative of dynamic change at the community and ecosystem levels."

esciencenews.com

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Britain's 'earliest hospital' discovered

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Radio carbon analysis of site in Winchester provides date range of AD 960-1030 – preceding Norman conquest.

Archaeologists have uncovered a site that may house Britain's earliest known hospital. Radio carbon analysis at the former Leper Hospital at St Mary Magdalen in Winchester, Hampshire, has provided a date range of AD 960-1030 for a series of burials, many exhibiting evidence of leprosy.

A number of other artefacts, pits, and postholes relate to the same time, including what appears to be a large sunken structure underneath a medieval infirmary.

Most historians and archaeologists had believed hospitals in Britain only dated from after the Norman conquest of 1066.

"This is an important archaeological development," said Dr Simon Roffey from the University of Winchester, which conducted the dig.

"Historically, it has always been assumed that hospitals were a post-conquest phenomenon, the majority founded from the late 11th century onwards.

"However, our excavations have revealed a range of buildings and, more significantly, convincing evidence for a foundation in the 10th century.

"Our excavations at St Mary Magdalen offer an intriguing insight into a little known aspect of the history of both Winchester and England. It is undoubtedly a site of national importance."

Among the earliest known hospitals in the UK is Harbledown in Canterbury, founded by Lanfranc in the 1070s, following the Norman conquest.

Professor Nicholas Orme, a leading researcher on medieval hospitals, added: "I have only studied the documentary evidence but I could not find any such evidence for a hospital before 1066 except perhaps as an activity within a monastery or minster.

"A late Anglo-Saxon hospital would surely be a first for archaeology and indeed for history."

Winchester was the capital of England throughout a large part of the Anglo-Saxon period and after the Norman conquest. The capital was moved to London from the Hampshire city in the 12th century.

guardian.co.uk

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Swiss unearth 5,000-year-old door

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Archeologists find 'remarkable' Neolithic wooden door as old as Stonehenge at site of planned car park in Zurich.

Archaeologists in Zurich have unearthed a 5,000-year-old door that may be one of the oldest ever found in Europe.

The ancient poplar wood door is "solid and elegant" with well-preserved hinges and a "remarkable" design for holding the boards together, archaeologist Niels Bleicher said today.

Using tree rings to determine its age, Bleicher believes the door could have been made in 3,063BC, just as construction on Stonehenge began.

"The door is very remarkable because of the way the planks were held together," he told the Associated Press.

Harsh climatic conditions at the time meant people had to build solid houses that would keep out much of the cold wind that blew across Lake Zurich, and the door would have helped, Bleicher said. "It's a clever design that even looks good."

The door was part of a settlement of so-called "stilt houses" frequently found near lakes about a thousand years after agriculture and animal husbandry were first introduced to the pre-Alpine region.

It is similar to a door found in nearby Pfaeffikon, while a third – made from one solid piece of wood – is believed to be even older, possibly 3,700BC, said Bleicher.

The latest door was found at the dig for what is intended to be a new underground car park for Zurich's opera house.

Archaeologists have found traces of at least five Neolithic villages believed to have existed at the site between 3,700 and 2,500 years BC, including objects such as a flint dagger from what is now Italy and an elaborate hunting bow.

guardian.co.uk

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New bony-skulled dinosaur species discovered in Texas

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Paleontologists have discovered a new species of dinosaur with a softball-sized lump of solid bone on top of its skull, according to a paper published in the April issue of the journal Cretaceous Research. The species was a plant-eating dinosaur about as big as a medium-sized dog that lived 70 to 80 million years ago, said Nicholas Longrich of Yale University, lead author of the paper. The team discovered two skull fragments in Big Bend National Park in southwest Texas in 2008. They compared them to dozens of fossils from related species found in Canada and Montana before confirming that the fossils represented a new genus of pachycephalosaur, a group of bipedal, thick-skulled dinosaurs.

The researchers named the new species Texacephale langstoni. ("Texacephale" means "Texas head" and "langstoni" is in honor of Wann Langston, a fellow paleontologist.) The new species is one of about a dozen known to have solid lumps of bone on top of their skulls, which Longrich speculates was probably used to ram one another head-on in a manner similar to modern-day musk oxen and cape buffalo.

The discovery of the new species lends further weight to the idea, which has gained popularity in recent years, that dinosaurs found in Canada and the northern United States were distinct from their southern neighbors.

"Instead of roaming across the North American continent, we see pockets of different dinosaurs that are pretty isolated from one another," Longrich said. "Every time we get good fossils from Texas, they end up looking very different from those to the north."

Because fossils from the Big Bend region are rare and tend to be poorly preserved, scientists do not have a complete picture of the different species that once inhabited the area, Longrich said.

But the team may have uncovered an important piece of the puzzle with their discovery. They found that this particular group of dinosaurs, which was previously thought to have originated in Asia, likely evolved in North America.

Longrich expects more related species to be discovered in the future as fossils from the Texas site and elsewhere continue to be examined.

"I think we underestimate how many different species there were," he says.

Yale University

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Stalagmite reveals carbon footprint of early Native Americans

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A new study led by Ohio University scientists suggests that early Native Americans left a bigger carbon footprint than previously thought, providing more evidence that humans impacted global climate long before the modern industrial era. Chemical analysis of a stalagmite found in the mountainous Buckeye Creek basin of West Virginia suggests that native people contributed a significant level of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere through land use practices. The early Native Americans burned trees to actively manage the forests to yield the nuts and fruit that were a large part of their diets.

"They had achieved a pretty sophisticated level of living that I don't think people have fully appreciated," said Gregory Springer, an associate professor of geological sciences at Ohio University and lead author of the study, which was published a recent issue of the journal The Holocene. "They were very advanced, and they knew how to get the most out of the forests and landscapes they lived in. This was all across North America, not just a few locations."

Initially, Springer and research collaborators from University of Texas at Arlington and University of Minnesota were studying historic drought cycles in North America using carbon isotopes in stalagmites. To their surprise, the carbon record contained evidence of a major change in the local ecosystem beginning at 100 B.C. This intrigued the team because an archeological excavation in a nearby cave had yielded evidence of a Native American community there 2,000 years ago.

Springer recruited two Ohio University graduate students to examine stream sediments, and with the help of Harold Rowe of University of Texas at Arlington, the team found very high levels of charcoal beginning 2,000 years ago, as well as a carbon isotope history similar to the stalagmite.

This evidence suggests that Native Americans significantly altered the local ecosystem by clearing and burning forests, probably to make fields and enhance the growth of nut trees, Springer said. This picture conflicts with the popular notion that early Native Americans had little impact on North American landscapes. They were better land stewards than the European colonialists who followed, he said, but they apparently cleared more land and burned more forest than previously thought.

"Long before we were burning fossil fuels, we were already pumping greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. It wasn't at the same level as today, but it sets the stage," Springer said.

This long-ago land clearing would have impacted global climate, Springer added. Ongoing clearing and burning of the Amazon rainforest, for example, is one of the world's largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Prehistoric burning by Native Americans was less intense, but a non-trivial source of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, he said.

Ohio University

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The new T. rex: A leech with an affinity for noses

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The new T. rex has ferociously large teeth lining a single jaw. But its length is less than 2 inches. Tyrannobdella rex, which means tyrant leech king, is a new species of blood sucker that lives in the remote parts of the Upper Amazon. Although its regular host remains unknown, it was discovered three years ago in Perú when a 44.5 millimeter leech was plucked from the nose of a girl who had recently been bathing in a river. The new species, described in PLoS ONE, has led to revising the group of leeches that has a habit of feeding from body orifices of mammals. "Because of our analysis of morphology and DNA, we think that Tyrannobdella rex is most closely related to another leech that gets into the mouths of livestock in Mexico," says Anna Phillips, a graduate student affiliated with the American Museum of Natural History and the first author of the paper. "We think the leech could feed on aquatic mammals, from their noses and mouths for example, where they could stay for weeks at a time."

Discoveries of new leech species are not uncommon occurrences. Although there are 600 to 700 species of described leeches, it is thought that there could be as many as10,000 species throughout the world in marine, terrestrial and fresh water environments. Tyrannobdella rex was first brought to the attention of Mark Siddall, curator in the Division of Invertebrate Zoology at the Museum, when he received a specimen collected by Dr. Renzo Arauco-Brown, a Peruvian medical doctor from the School of Medicine at the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia in Lima who was working at a clinic in Chanchamayo province. Siddall immediately recognized it as a new species. His student Alejandro Oceguera-Figueroa described its weird morphology—a single jaw with eight very large teeth, and extremely small genitalia. Two earlier cases from 1997 were re-discovered from different clinics in the western Amazon, one from Lamas province and the other from Yochegua province.

The new genus and species, Tyrannobdella rex, has led to a revision of the phylogenetic relationships among several leech families. Both morphological and genetic data show that this species is most closely related to Pintobdella chiapasensis, a leech from Chiapas that is typically hosted by tapir but also infests cows. Part of the research for this paper involved a Mexican expedition by Phillips and Oceguera-Figueroa to gather new specimens for DNA analysis. Close by on the phylogenetic tree, this group is related to leeches found in India and Taiwan like Dinobdella ferox, the terrible, ferocious leech that is well-known for feeding on mucus membranes and getting into various human orifices. All of these species, and others from Mexico, Africa, and the Middle East, make up the family Praobdellidae, a group of leeches that seems to share this feeding behavior and which can pose a risk to human health in certain parts of the world.

The evolutionary relationship among leeches that currently inhabit distant regions suggests that the common ancestor of this group must have lived when the continents were pressed together into a single land mass, before Pangaea broke up.

"We named it Tyrannobdella rex because of its enormous teeth. Besides, the earliest species in this family of these leeches no-doubt shared an environment with dinosaurs about 200 million years ago when some ancestor of our T. rex may have been up that other T. rex's nose," says Siddall. "The new T. rex joins four other species that use this abbreviated name, including two Miocene fossils (a snail and a scarab beetle), a living Malaysian formicid ant, and, of course, the infamous Cretaceous theropod dinosaur that was described in 1905 by an earlier curator of the American Museum of Natural History."

American Museum of Natural History

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300 million year old ancestor revealed in new 3-D model

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An early ancestor of the cockroach that lived around 300 million years ago is unveiled in unprecedented detail in a new three-dimensional 'virtual fossil' model, in research published today in the journal Biology Letters.

Scientists at Imperial College London have made a comprehensive 3D model of a fossilised specimen called Archimylacris eggintoni, which is an ancient ancestor of modern cockroaches, mantises and termites. This insect scuttled around on Earth during the Carboniferous period 359 - 299 million years ago, which was a time when life had recently emerged from the oceans to live on land.

The study reveals for the first time how Archimylacris eggintoni's physical traits helped it to thrive on the floor of Earth's early forests. The fossils of these creatures are normally between 2cm and 9cm in length and approximately 4cm in width.

The lead author of the study, Mr Russell Garwood, a PhD student from the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial College London, says, "The Carboniferous period is sometimes referred to as the age of the cockroach because fossils of Archimylacris eggintoni and its relatives are amongst the most common insects from this time period. They are found all over the world. People joke about it being impossible to kill cockroaches and our 3D model almost brings this one back to life. Thanks to our 3D modelling process, we can see how Archimylacris eggintoni's limbs were well adapted for all terrains, as it was not only adept in the air but also very agile on the ground."

sciencecodex.com

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Egyptians Discover Roman-Era Mummy

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Egyptian archaeologists discovered an intricately carved plaster sarcophagus portraying a wide-eyed woman dressed in a tunic in a newly uncovered complex of tombs at a remote desert oasis, Egypt's antiquities department announced Monday.

It is the first Roman-style mummy found in Bahariya Oasis some 186 miles (300 kilometers) southwest of Cairo, said archaeologist Mahmoud Afifi, who led the dig. The find was part of a cemetery dating back to the Greco-Roman period containing 14 tombs.

"It is a unique find," he told The Associated Press, confirming that initial examinations indicate a mummy is inside the coffin.

The carved plaster sarcophagus is only 3 feet (1 meter) long and shows a woman wearing a long tunic, a headscarf, bracelet and shoes, as well as a beaded necklace. Colored stones in the sarcophagus' eyes gave the appearance she is awake.

Afifi said they had not dated the new find yet, but the burial style indicated she belonged to Egypt's long period of Roman rule lasting a few hundred years and starting 31 B.C.

He said his team first thought they had stumbled across a child's tomb because of its diminutive stature, but the decorations and features indicated it was a woman.

Afifi said it was still unclear who the woman was but said it was most likely she was a wealthy and influential member of her society, judging by the effort taken on the sarcophagus.

Mummies of people of diminutive stature have been unearthed in other parts of Egypt, where they appeared to have importance in local religions at the time, he added.

The archaeologists also found a gold relief showing the four sons of the Egyptian god Horus, other plaster masks of women's faces, several glass and clay utensils and some metal coins.

The metal coins are being checked to see whether they can date the era of the tomb more precisely.

Larger Tomb Complex

Afifi said the find suggested the presence of a larger tomb complex, but said humid weather in the area may have destroyed similar sites.

He said none of the other 13 graves were as complete as that of the woman.

The find was made after archaeologists had made a series of exploratory digs ahead of a local council plan to build a youth center on the land. The area is known for its relics from the Greco-Roman period.

Bahariya Oasis rocketed to fame a decade ago with the discovery of the "Valley of the Golden Mummies," a vast cemetery that has yielded up hundreds of mummies, many covered in gold leaf, from the Greco-Roman period.

Those sarcophagi were decorated in a more traditional ancient Egyptian style, rather than the Roman style of the current find.

The discoveries from this period indicate the comparative wealth and prosperity of the oases at the time due to their location on major desert trading routes.

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Ancient city yielding new clues in Michoacan, Mexico

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Colorado researchers have discovered and partially mapped a major urban center once occupied by the Purépecha of Mexico, a little-known people who fought the Aztecs to a standstill and who controlled much of western Mexico until diseases brought by the Spanish decimated them.

The "proto-urban center," which researchers have not yet named, sat on volcanic rock on the shores of Lake Pátzcuaro in the central Mexican state of Michoacan, now a tourist destination. It supported as many as 40,000 people until the consolidation of the Purépecha empire about AD 1350 led most of its inhabitants to relocate to the new capital of Tzintzuntzan, six miles away.

"What's really interesting about the site is that it gives us a window into the pre-state period when social complexity was increasing and people were congregating together and starting to modify the landscape," said archaeologist Christopher Fisher of Colorado State University, who will present the findings this week at a St. Louis meeting of the Society for American Archaeology.

Finding that the urban center's population fell as the capital, Tzintzuntzan, grew will also help rewrite the history of the Purépecha, who were also known as Tarascans, said archaeologist Gary Feinman of Chicago's Field Museum, who was not involved in the research.

It indicates, he said, that concentration of the population -- rather than population growth as had previously been believed -- "was a critical element in the concentration of power, particularly in Mesoamerica, where you did not have domesticated animals. People were absolutely critical for moving goods, constructing things and producing food."

Despite the fact that the Purépecha empire was as large and powerful as that of the Aztecs, they "have gotten the short end of the stick as far as public attention goes," Fisher said.

Much of what we know about the Aztecs comes from the colonial records of the Spanish expeditionary force, he noted, but the Spaniards -- who encountered the Aztecs first -- had little contact with the Purépecha until the civilization was already doomed by disease.

Yet the Purépecha not only controlled most of western Mexico, but had a strongly fortified border with the Aztec empire and ultimately defeated the Aztec army in a fierce battle in the late 15th century.

Part of their strength came from their skill as coppersmiths and, despite the fact that they were fierce enemies, the Aztecs traded extensively with them to acquire copper tools, bells and other valuable objects.

Fisher and his team discovered the site last summer as part of their ongoing survey of the Lake Pátzcuaro basin.

Because the lake level has been dropping, the Purépecha site now sits a couple of miles east of the lake -- Fisher is vague about the precise location because of fears of looting -- but at its height was probably no more than a quarter mile from the shore.

The site sits on a landform called malpais, a young, rugged volcanic landscape "that looks like gravel dumped into a big pile," he said.

Because the land is not suitable for agriculture, the foundations of structures have been largely preserved.

The site encompasses about 5 square kilometers (about 1,200 acres). Using rugged computers and specialized GPS receivers, the team has carefully mapped about a fifth of the site, recording more than 1,300 features, including house mounds, room blocks, buildings, small temples, plazas and agricultural terraces.

Such detailed mapping "is quite revolutionary because it gives us a chance to see what the economic picture was, and the social differentiation," said archaeologist Barbara Stark of Arizona State University, who was not involved in the research. "It's hard to describe how important that is for our understanding of these societies."

Most of the site dates from AD 1000 to about 1350, when it began to shrink as the population moved elsewhere. By 1500, it was largely abandoned.

Most of the rest of the empire disappeared soon after. Smallpox and other diseases that were spread to the Aztecs by the Spanish were transmitted to the Purépecha as well, killing 80% to 90% of the population. By the time the Spanish attacked the Purépecha, there was hardly anyone left to resist.

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Human fossil discovery -- evidence of new Homo species

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Two partial skeletons have been discovered in the cave deposits in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site near Johannesburg, in the Republic of South Africa by members of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. The human fossils, close to 2 million years old, have been classified as a new species: Australopithecus sediba. Australopithecus means "southern ape" and Sediba, taken from the local South African language seSotho means "natural spring, fountain or wellspring".

The findings represent some of the most significant scientific discoveries of recent years and were published today in the scientific journal Science.

Dr Robyn Pickering of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne who was one a team of international and Australian scientists to accurately date the sediments surrounding the fossils says, "We are now able to fill in the gap of what happened 2 million years ago in the beginnings of our species."

"It has never been clear where our own genus Homo came from – this new discovery, Australopithecus sediba could answer these questions," she says.

Researchers say this species appears to be a transitional form, maybe the best yet found, between early australopithecines and early members of the genus Homo, thereby replacing other candidates such as Homo habilis (the tool making 'handy' man from east Africa) as the distant ancestor of Homo sapien.

The Sediba fossils are exceptionally well preserved, and therefore provide a unique insight in the period when the earliest members of our genus evolved.

Sediments from surrounding and supporting the fossils were analysed by several research teams.

Using a state-of-the-art uranium lead dating technique, conducted independently and in parallel by Dr Pickering at the University of Melbourne and her former PhD supervisor Professor Jan Kramers from the University of Bern in Switzerland, they produced an identical age result confirming the sediment was close to 2 million years old.

"Together with palaeomagnetic dating of the sediments more closely surrounding the fossils by Andy Herries of UNSW and our team of colleagues led by Professor Paul Dirks from the University of Townsville, we were collectively able to provide an age of 1.95-1.78 million years for the fossils," Dr Pickering says.

"This is the first time, in relation to these renowned caves in South Africa, that we have been able to achieve such high-quality age control."

"Knowing how old these early human (hominin) fossils are, is critical to our knowledge of where this newly found species fits into our family tree," she says.

Associate Professor Jon Woodhead, who heads the Isotope Geosciences laboratory in the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne, noted "This is a highly significant find and I congratulate Robyn and her colleagues on their discovery."

"Only very recently have we been able to develop the technologies required to allow precise dating of cave sediments such as those found in intimate association with these new fossils."

"This really is the beginning of a 'new era' as such methods have much to contribute to studies of global climate change, biodiversity and, in this case, human evolution."

"The University of Melbourne is a world leader in this area and we are proud to have been able to contribute to this important discovery."

University of Melbourne

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